bahasa inggris bisnis 1

Nama: Puadji Anggara

Npm : 21106066

Kelas: 4 kb o4

Business English

( taken from MAKET LEADER)

UNIT 1

BRANDS

	Value for money luxurious timeless well-made top of the range durable inexpensive cool Reliable stylish fashionable sexy

1. List some of your favourite brands. Then answer these questions.

1. Are they International or national brands? They are International Brands
2. What image and qualities does each one have? Use the following words and phrases to help you? Image and qualities of each brands is cool and durable

3. Why do people buy brands? Because brands goods have high quality

4. Why do you think some people dislikes brands? Because the brands is not reliable

5. How loyal are you to the brands you have chosen? I will loyal if product of the

brands is well - made and have top of range

For example, when you buy jean, do you always buy Levi’s

2. A recent survey named the brands below as the world’s top ten. Which do you think is number one? Rank the others in order.

	Marlboro Nokia Mercedes General Electric Intel IBM Microsoft Coca – cola Mc Donald’s Disney

The answer :

1. Generel Electric
2. Microsoft
3. Coca – cola
4. Marlboro
5. IBM
6. Mc Donald’s
7. Nokia
8. Disney
9. Intel
10. Mercedes

** From Rank of global Brands

Vocabulary

Brand Management

1. Match these word partnerships to their meanings.

B R A N D PRODUCT	1. Loyalty [ J ]	a. the name given to a product by the company that makes it.
	2. Image [ C ]	b. using an existing name on another type of product
	3. stretching [ B ]	c. the ideas and beliefs people have about a brand
	4. awareness [ E ]	d. the tendency to always buy a particular brand
	5. name [ A ]	e. how familiar people are with a brand
	6. launch [ I ]	f. the set of products made by a company
	7. lifecycle [ D ]	g. the use of a well-known person to advertise products
	8. range [ F ]	h. When products are used in films or TV programs
	9. placement [ H ]	i. The introduction of a product to the market
	10. endorsement [ G ]	j. the length of time people continue to buy a product

2. Complete these sentences with word partnerships from exercise A

BRAND

1. the creation of Virgin Cola, Virgin Air, Virgin Rail and Virgin bride is an example of … brand stretching …
2. Consumers who always buy Levi’s when they need a new pair of jeans are showing …Brand awareness…
3. not enough people recognize our logo; we need to spent a lot more on raising …. Brand Image….

PRODUCT

1. David Beckham advertising Vodafone is an example of … product endorsement..
2. A …Product launch ... consists of introduction, growth , maturity and decline.
3. the use of BMW cars and Nokia phones in James Bond films are examples of … Product placement…

3. Make sentences of your own using the word partnerships in Exercise A.

Reading

Outsourcing Production

1. Why do some companies make luxury products abroad rather than at home? Because they trust about the quality for the products

2. Read the article and answer these questions.
1. Which brands are mentioned? Do you know which country each is from? Burberry (Italy), Coach (US), Prada (Italy), Gucci (Italy)
2. Which companies make all of their products in their own country? Prada makes all of their products in their own country

Made in Europe

By Jo Johnson, Fred Kapner and Richard McGregor

Almost every fashion label outside the top super-luxury brands is either already manufacturing in Asia or thinking of it. Coach, the US leather goods maker, is a classis example. Over the past five years, it has lifted all its gross margins by manufacturing solely in low-cost markets. In March 2002 it closed its factory in Lares, Puerto Rico, its last company-owned plant, and outsources all its products.

Burberry has many Asian licensing arrangements. In 2000 it decided to renew Sanyo’s Japanese licence for 20 ten years. This means that almost half of Burberry’s sales at retail value will continue to be produced under licence in Asia. At the same time however, Japanese consumers prefer the group’s European-made products.

Sanyo is now creating to this demand for a snob alternative to the Burberry products made in its factories across Asia by opening a flagship store in Tokyo’s Ginza, where it sells Burberry products imported from Europe.

In interviews with the FT, many executives says the top luxury brands will continue to be seen, particularly in Asia, as European. Domenico De Sole of Gucci says “ The Asian Consumer really dos believe – whether it’s true or not – that luxury comes from Europe and must be made there to be the best.’

Serge Weinberg, Chief Executive of Pinault Printemps Redoute, which controls Gucci, says it will not move Gucci’s production of shore. Yet some in the industry recognize that change may be round the corner even for the superluxury brands. Patrizio Bertelli, Chief Executive of Prada, says:’ The “Made in Italy” label is important but what we are really offering is a style, and style is an expression of culture.’ He therefore recognizes that quality fashion items may not always need to be produced in italy.

Amitava Chattopadhyay, professor of marketing at Insead, the business school, says:’ A brand is a set of associations in the mind of the consumer and one of these is the country of origin. . For luxury goods, the role of the brand is crucial. To damage it is a cardinal sin and no brand manager will want to get the balance between manufacturing location and the brand image wrong’.

From the Financial Times

FINANCIAL TIMES

World Business Newspaper

C Which of these statements are true? Correct the false ones.

1. Coach has no longer factory in Puerto Rico. [true]
2. Coach, like many other companies, is outsourcing its product to reduce costs. [true]
3. Some Japanese people choose to buy Burberry products made in Europe rather than in Japan. [true]
4. Sanyo’s store in Tokyo sells Burberry’s product made in Asia. [false]
5. According to Domenico De Solle, the best luxury products are made in Japan. [false]
6. Gucci is planning to outsource some of its products. [false]
7. Partizio Bertelli believes that luxury fashion products should always be made in Europe [false]
8. Amitava chattopadhyay says that companies need to pay careful attention to where they manufacture their products. [true]

3. Choose the best summary of the article.

1. Most manufacturers of luxury brands do not wish to produce their goods in low-cost countries because their believe that it will damage their brand image.
2. Most manufacturers of top brands now produce their goods in low cost countries. Consumers no longer care about where the products are manufactured.
3. Asian consumers think that European luxury goods are of high quality. The current trend of making such goods in Asia could damage the reputation of these luxury brands.

Language Review

Present simple and present continuous.

The Present simple and Present continuous have several uses.

• We use the present simple to give factual information, for example about company activities.

Coach outsources all its products.

Does Burberry outsource its products?

• We use the present simple to talk about routine activities or habits.

I always buy Armani suits. Do you usually buy designer brands?

• We use the present continuous to talk about ongoing situations and projects.

Sanyo is now reacting to this demand.

• We use present contiuous to talk about temporary situations.

We are testing a new brand at the moment.

A. Which of the time expressions below do we usually use with the present simple? Always, as a rule, generally, normally, usually, often, never, regularly, sometimes,

seldom, nowadays, when, frequently, every day, now and then, etc

B. Which of the time expressions do we usually use with the present continuous? Now, today, right now, at present, tonight, tomorrow, this afternoon, soon, in a few

days, this morning, etc

Which are used with both?

Usually [Simple present tense]

this year [Simple present continuous tense]

every day [Simple present tense]

now [Simple present continuous tense]

Often [Simple present tense]

Nowadays [Simple present tense and Simple present continuous tense]

once a month [Simple present tense]

Currently [Simple present continuous tense]

at the moment [Simple present continuous tense]

these days [Simple present continuous tense]

3. Complete these sentences with the present simple or the present continuous forms of the verbs in brackets.

1.a. This year we trying (try) to develop a brand with personality.

b. We usually develop (develop) brands that say something.

2. a. Powerful brand names create (create) strong costumer loyalty.

b. At the moment we looking (look) for a new brand name that suggests something about the product’s benefits and qualities.

3. a. L’Oreal sells (sell) cosmetics and toiletries to customers around the world.

b. This year L’Oreal investing (invest) over 180£m in R & D.

4. a. The marketing department always keep (keep) within its budget.

b. Because the company made a loss last year, the marketing department try (try) to reduce costs.

4. Complete the text below with the present simple or present continuous forms of the verbs in brackets.

At the moment I working (work) for a cosmetics company. We offer a full range of cosmetic products and sell (sell) cosmetics and toiletries around the world. Our main cosmetics brand dominate (dominate) the French market and it doing (do) well in the rest of Europe at the moment, too. In fact, the brand become (become) more and more popular throughout the world and our market share grow (grow) everyday.

We usually develop (develop) and extend (extend) productsunder our existing brand name. The brand is distinctive and stands (stand) out from the competition. However, this year we creating (create) a completely new brand of cosmetics.

Discussion

Two Promotions

A.Work in pairs. Student A reads case 1 and answers the questions. Student B read Case 2 and answer the questions.

Case 1 : Harley Davidson.

In 2003 the Harley Davidson brand was 100 years old. Although its brand image is based on the spirit of wild and rebellious youth such as Marlon Brando in the film The Wild One (1954), the typical consumer is very different. They are likely to be rich, middle-aged accountants trying to recapture their youth. The average age of Harley Davidson customers is 46 compared with 36 for the rest of the motorbike industry. At the party to celebrate the centenary, the surprise performance was actually Elton John, rather than the Rolling Stones who many people had expected. This caused many of the 150,000 riders and dealers to leave the event very unhappy. Although sales and earnings for Harley Davidson have been increasing for the past 18 years, many people see the trouble on the road ahead. The problem is Harley Davidson’s typical customers from the baby –boom generation (1946 – 1964) and, as these customers get older, Harley Davidson may find its market shrinking.

1. What is the brand image of Harley Davidson? Brand image is based on the spirit of wild and rebellious youth such as Marlon Brando in the film The Wild One (1954)
2. Why were many people unhappy about the music at the party? Because, At the party to celebrate the centenary, the surprise performance was actually Elton John, rather than the Rolling Stones who many people had expected.
3. What problem could have Harley Davidson have in the future? The problem is Harley Davidson’s typical customers from the baby –boom generation (1946 – 1964) and, as these customers get older
4. What can Harley Davidson fo to preserve it sales? Should it change its brand image? Should it look for a new market segments? Should it stretch its brand? My opinion is Harley Davidson should look for a new market segment

Case 2 : JCB

JCB is a world-famous engineering company. It was founded in 1945 by Joseph Cyril Bamford. He began his business working alone in a small garage. JCB makes construction and agricultural equipment such as tractors, earth-moving vehicles, and loading machines. Now its world headquarters in England is one of the finest engineering factories in Europe. The company produces over 130 different models on four different continents and sells a full range of equipment in over 150 countries. It is truly a global brand.

JCB’s research showed that its customers associated with the company with the following brand values :’yellow,’digger’, and ‘durable’. Adult saw the brand and being functional. Children, on the other hand, saw the brand as ‘big’, ‘muddy’ and ‘fun’. JCB made a decision to stretch its brand.

1. Where does the name JCB come from? JCB come from the name of Joseph Cyril Bamford. He is founded a world-famous engineering company(JCB)

2. What was surprising about JCB’s customer research? JCB’s research showed that its customers associated with the company with the following brand values :’yellow,’digger’, and ‘durable’

3. What sort of products do you think JCB developed as a result of its research? JCB makes construction and agricultural equipment such as tractors, earth-moving vehicles, and loading machines.

4. Can you think of a similar example of brand-stretching in your country?

Useful Language

Asking for opinions Agreeing Making suggestions

How do you feel about…..? That’s true I think we should….

What do you think? I agree How about… ?

What’s your opinion? Absolutely / exactly Why don’t we … ?

What’s your view? I think so too. Perhaps we could….

Giving opinions Disagreeing

I think……./ I don’t think ……… I see / know what you mean, but….

In my opinion……. I’m afraid I can’t agree

Maybe, but…

UNIT 2

TRAVEL

A. Answer these questions individually. Then compare your answers with a partner.

1. How often do you travel by air, road and sea? I often travel by the road.
2. What do you enjoy about traveling? What don’t you enjoy? I enjoy my travelling because I will know a lot of new place, so I have new experience from my travelling. I don’t enjoy my travelling because I had a worst experience from some place i trip before
3. Put the following in order of importance to you when you travel?

Comfort safety price reliability speed

1. safety
2. comtort
3. price
4. realibility
5. speed

4. Does the order change for different types of travel? Yes, It does

B. Choose the correct word from the box to complete the following list of things which irritate people when flying.

Seats trolleys queues luggage

Room cancellations food jet

1. Not enough leg trolleys
2. lost or delayed seats
3. long queues at check in
4. poor quality foad and drink
5. no baggage room available.
6. overbooking of luaggage
7. flight delays and cancellations
8. jet -lag

Vocabulary

British and American English

A. Match the words and phrases below which have the same meaning. For each pair decide which is British English and which is American English.

1. subway a. motorway [ 6 ]
2. city centre b. lift [ 8 ]
3. carry-on baggage c. public toilet [ 7 ]
4. one way d. schedule [ 10 ]
5. return e. economy class.[ 9 ]
6. freeway f. single [ 4 ]
7. rest room g. parking lot [ 11 ]
8. elevator h. underground [ 1 ]
9. coach class i. hand luggage [ 3 ]
10. timetable j. round trip [ 5 ]
11. car park k. downtown.[ 2 ]

B.Work in pairs. Use words or phrases in American English from exercise A to complete the text below.

My last overseas business trip was a nightmare from start to finish. First of all there was a delay on the way to the airport as there was an accident on the motorway When I got there I found the lower level of the airport public toilet was flooded. Next my hand luggage. was closed and there were no cabs at all. After long time trying to read the schedule and waiting for forty minutes, we finally got a bus economy class and found the hotel, but the lift wasn’t working and our rooms were on the fifth floor.

Reading

Air Rage

A. Answer these questions before you read the article.

1, What was your worst experience when traveling by air? I don’t worst experience when travelling by air, because I have never travelling by air

2. Why do some people get angry when they are traveling on a plane? Because the flight

often was a delay, a cancellations, and service from the flight company not satisfy

Road ragers in the sky

By Derek Brown

Airlines and their long-suffering customers are reporting a steep climb in air rage incidents. Some incidents are apparently caused by problems which are familiar to many regular travellers. One case reported from America stemmed from an interminable delay in takeoff, when passangers were cooped up in their aircraft on the tarmac or our hours, without food, drink or information. Mass unrest is less common the individual misbehaviour, as in the case of the convict who recently went crazy on a flight, attacked the crew and tried to open the door in mind flight.

The psychology of air rage is a new are o study, and there are almost as many explanations as examples. Most analysis of the phenomenon blame alcohol, but many people now think that the airlines are at fault. To cut costs, they are cramming ever more passangers into their aircraft, while reducing cabin crew, training, and quality of service, all o which increase passenger frustration. In addition, there are increasing concern in the US about another cost-cutting exercise, which could seriously harm passengers’ health: cabin ventilation.

I. Modern aircraft are equipped with sophisticated air conditioning devices – but running them at.optimum capacity burns up valuable aviation fuel. Many airlines routinely instruct their flight crews to run the systems on minimum settings. Champaignes for improved air quality claim that this can lead to irritability and disorientation.

In the US, the soaring number of passenger complaints across a wide range of issues is reflected in a number of new internet sites which criticize the airline and demand better service. One of the sites is demanding an air passengers’ Bill of Rights.

Cabin and flight crews, who are in the front line of the battle against disruptive and dangerous in-flight behaviour, have called for stiffer penalties against the offenders. Management have also called or legislation – while denying that its cost-cutting practices have contributed to the problem. But there are some signs, in the US at least, that the airlines are at last attempting to respond to customer dissatisfaction. Some major lines have announced concessions to the most frequent complaint for all, and are removing seats to make more room for their customers.

Exercise:

A.COMPLETE EACH DIALOGUE WITH THE CORRECT FROM OF GOING TO

OR WILL

1 A.I’m really sorry,I can’t take you to the station .Something has just come up

B.Oh,don’t worry,I will take (take) a taxi

2 A.We’ve chosen a name four new low-cost airline

B.Really,What will you call (you/call) it?

3 A.Have you decided how to increase the number of passengers?

B.Yes,we going to offer (offer) a family discount at weekends.

4 A.I can’t send an e-mail to the travel agent;my computer’s just crashe

B.Write down your details and I will fax (fax) them over for you.

5 A.How’s your daughter?

B.She’s fine.She going to learn (learn) to be a pilot for the flying doctor service next

Year!

B.USE THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS OR THE PRESENT SIMPLE TO COMPLETE

THE SENTENCES BELOW

1.His flight arrives at 9 o’clock tomorrow morning.

2.We’re staying at the Hilton Hotel for next month’s sales conference.

3.The next seminar is begins at 3 p.m

4.I am travelling by train from Paris to London next time.

5.The boat is departs at midday so you have the whole morning to get ready.

6.The delegation from China are seeing the Chairman the following Monday

C.WORK IN PAIRS.TAKE TURNS TO COMPLETE THE SENTENCES BELOW.USE

GOING TO,WILL,THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS OR THE PRESENT SIMPLE.

1.I’m sorry,I can’t attend the sales meeting tomorrow. Because I am going to Karawang for follow exams

2.The marketing department have decided on their travel plans for the next month. They are going to the beach for holiday.

3The trains are delayed because of bad weather,so I am not going to anyway.

4.Don’t worry if you can’t drive me to airport, I will take taxi.

5.I’ve got the details of your flight to Turkey I will give to you.

6.Oh,no!There’s been an accident and the traffic is very jam.

Analisis Komputer Pengendali Pesawat Terbang

Analisis Komputer Pengendali Pesawat Terbang

Sistem Navigasi Pesawat Terbang

Semua pesawat terbang dilengkapi dengan sistem navigasi agar pesawat tidak tersesat dalam melakukan penerbangan. Panel-panel instrument navigasi pada kokpit pesawat memberikan berbagai informasi untuk sistem navigasi mulai dari informasi tentang arah dan ketinggian pesawat. Pengecekan terhadap instrument sistem navigasi harus seteliti dan seketat mungkin.

Sebagai contoh kejadian yang menimpa pesawat Adam Air pada bulan pebruari 2006 sewaktu menjalani penerbangan dari bandara Soekarno Hatta menuju bandara Hasanudin di Makasar. Ketidaktelitian pihak otoritas penerbangan yang mengijinkan pesawat Adam Air terbang dengan sistem navigasi yang tidak berfungsi menyebabkan Pesawat Adam Air berputar-putar di udara tanpa tahu arah selama tiga jam, sebelum mendarat darurat di bandara El Tari Nusa Tenggara Timur. Kesalahan akibat tidak berfungsinya system navigasi adalah kesalahan yang fatal dalam dunia penerbangan. Sanksi yang diberikan adalah dicabutnya ijin operasi bagi maskapai penerbangan yang melanggar.

Fasilitas Navigasi dan Pengamatan adalah salah satu prasarana penunjang operasi bandara. Fasilitas ini dibagi menjadi dua kelompok peralatan, yaitu:

1. Pengamatan Penerbangan


2. Rambu Udara Radio

Peralatan Pengamatan Penerbangan

Peralatan pengamatan Penerbangan terdiri dari:

• Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR)
  
  PSR merupakan peralatan untuk mendeteksi dan mengetahui posisi dan data target yang ada di sekelilingnya secara pasif, dimana pesawat tidak ikut aktif jika terkena pancaran sinyal RF radar primer. Pancaran tersebut dipantulkan oleh badan pesawat dan dapat diterima di system penerima radar.


• Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)
  
  SSR merupakan peralatan untuk mendeteksi dan mengetahui posisi dan data target yang ada di sekelilingnya secara aktif, dimana pesawat ikut aktif jika menerima pancaran sinyal RF radar sekunder. Pancaran radar ini berupa pulsa-pulsa mode, pesawat yang dipasangi transponder, akan menerima pulsa-pulsa tersebut dan akan menjawab berupa pulsa-pulsa code ke system penerima radar.


• Air Traffic Control Automation (ATC Automation) terdiri dari RDPS, FDPS. ADBS-B Processing dan ADS-C Processing.


• Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast (ADS-B) dan Automatic Dependent Surveillance Contract (ADS-C) merupakan teknologi pengamatan yang menggunakan pemancaran informasi posisi oleh pesawat sebagai dasar pengamatan.



• Airport Survace Movement Ground Control System (ASMGCS)


• Multilateration


• Global Navigation Satellite System

Peralatan Rambu Udara Radio

Peralatan Rambu Udara Radio, yaitu Peralatan navigasi udara yang berfungsi memberikan signal informasi berupa Bearing (arah) dan jarak pesawat terhadap Ground Station, yang terdiri dari peralatan.

• Non Directional Beacon (NDB)
  
  Fasilitas navigasi penerbangan yang bekerja dengan menggunakan frekuensi rendah (low frequency) dan dipasang pada suatu lokasi tertentu di dalam atau di luar lingkungan Bandar udara sesuai fungsinya.


• VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR)
  
  Fasilitas navigasi penerbangan yang bekerja dengan menggunakan frekuensi radio dan dipasang pada suatu lokasi tertentu di dalam atau di luar lingkungan Bandar udara sesuai fungsinya.


• Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
  
  Alat Bantu navigasi penerbangan yang berfungsi untuk memberikan panduan/informasi jarak bagi pesawat udara dengan stasiun DME yang dituju (Stant range distance).

Penempatan DME pada umumnya berpasangan (collocated) dengan VOR atau Glide Path ILS yang ditempatkan di dalam atau di luar lingkungan bandara tergantung fungsinya

Lawrence Sperry, orang pertama mendemonstrasikan sistem pilot otomatispada tahun 1914.

Pilot otomatis (dari bahasa Inggris: autopilot) adalah sistem mekanikal, elektrikal, atau hidrolik yang memandu sebuah kendaraan tanpa campur tangan dari manusia. Umumnya pilot otomatis dihubungkan dengan pesawat, tetapi pilot otomatis juga digunakan di kapal dengan istilah yang sama.

Sistem pilot otomatis pertama diciptakan oleh Sperry Corporation tahun 1912. Lawrence Sperry (anak dari penemu ternama Elmer Sperry) mendemonstrasikannya dua tahun kemudian pada 1914 serta membuktikan kredibilitas penemuannya itu dengan menerbangkan sebuah pesawat tanpa disetir olehnya.

Pilot otomatis menghubungkan indikator ketinggian menggunakan giroskop dan kompas magnetik ke rudder, elevator dan aileron. Sistem pilot otomatis tersebut dapat menerbangkan pesawat secara lurus dan rata menurut arah kompas tanpa campur tangan pilot, sehingga mencakup 80% dari keseluruhan beban kerja pilot dalam penerbangan secara umum. Sistem pilot otomatis lurus-dan-rata ini masih umum sekarang ini, lebih murah dan merupakan jenis pilot otomatis yang paling dipercaya. Sistem tersebut juga memiliki tingkat kesalahan terkecil karena kontrolnya yang tidak rumit.

Awak pesawat yang bekerja di dalam pesawat Boeing 777 hanya mengawasi dan mengecek sistem autopilot, karena semua peralatan beroperasi secara otomatis

Instrumen yang ada di kokpit pesawat dengan jumlah dan fungsi
yang bermacam-macam

Kontrol Lalulintas Udara

Segala aktifitas pengaturan lalulintas udara dikendalikan dari ruang air traffic control. Sedangkan Ruang Air Traffic Control sendiri terdiri dari empat unit tugas yaitu :

Gambar Aktifitas di ruangan Air Traffic Control

1. Data Analyzing Room


2. En-route Control Unit


3. Pilot Unit


4. Terminal Control Unit

Peralatan Pemantau Lalulintas Udara Display Air Traffic Controller

Instrument Landing System

Gambar Instrument Landing System

Instrument Landing System adalah suatu sistem peralatan yang ada di Bandar udara yang digunakan untuk memandu pesawat dalam melakukan pendaratan dengan aman dan lancar. Instrument Landing System menggunakan dua transmisi. Transmisi yang pertama berfungsi untuk memandu pesawat menuju landasan pacu, transmisi yang kedua menginformasikan tentang ketinggian pesawat dari landasan pacu.

Alur pendaratan pesawat terbang dengan dipandu Instrument Landing System

Gambar Alur Pendaratan Pesawat

Setelah memberi tahu pada bandara yang dituju, awak pesawat menunggu instruksi dari petugas Air Traffic Control. Pesawat akan diarahkan oleh Instrument Landing System melaui radio beacon untuk menentukan arah pendaratan agar tepat pada tengah tengah landasan pacu.

Ground Controlled Approach

Pesawat yang terpantau radar akan diarahkan oleh operator Ground Controlled Approach tentang petunjuk pendaratan pesawat terbang, dengan tujuan pesawat dapat mendarat dengan aman. Pekerjaan ini menuntut konsentrasi yang tinggi dari operatornya, sehingga diperlukan kerja shift karena bandara beroperasi duapuluh empat jam.

Radar pendeteksi Pesawat di Bandara

Mengenal Sistem Kendali Fly by wire pada pesawat terbang

Semua pesawat menggunakan sistem kendali mekanikal dan hidrolik. Pilot mengendalikan pesawat dengan menggunakan gaya langsung. Caranya adalah dengan menggerakan batang dan pedal kemudi yang terhubung dengan tali baja dan pushrod untuk menggerakkan control surfaces pada sayap dan ekor.

Ketika tenaga dari mesin dan kecepatan ditingkatkan, maka dibutuhkan gaya yang lebih besar, dan digunakanlah sistem hidolik untuk membantu. Sehingga, semua pesawat dengan ukuran besar dan performa tinggi memiliki sistem kendali terbang hidro-mekanikal. Sistem kendali terbang konvensional ini membatasi para perekayasa pesawat ketika melakukan konfigurasi dan desain dalam kaitannya dengan kestabilan terbang.

Dengan meningkatnya teknologi elektronika, muncul lah sebuah ide untuk membuat suatu sistem kendali terbang elektronik. Pada sistem kendali terbang elektronik ini, kawat baja dan pushrod digantikan oleh kabel yang jauh lebih ringan. Selain itu, dengan sistem kendali elektronik, perekayasa pesawat lebih fleksibel dalam menentukan konfigurasi, ukuran, dan penempatan komponen. Sistem kendali terbang elektronik ini lah yang kemudian dikenal dengan nama fly-by-wire system.

Fly-by-wire adalah suatu sistem kendali pesawat yang menggunakan sirkuit elektronik untuk mengirimkan input pengendalian dari pilot ke motor yang menggerakkan control surface seperti flap, aileron, dan rudder. Dalam sistem kendali fly-by-wire ini tidak ada lagi penghubung hidroulik maupun mekanikal secara langsung antara pilot dengan control surface pada pesawat. Digital fly-by-wire (DFBW) menggunkan sistem kendali terbang elektronik yang dipasangkan dengan komputer digital untuk menggantikan sistem kendali mekanikal konvensional. Dengan menambahkan sebuah komputer digital antara pilot dan pesawat, maka banyak sekali keuntungan yang didapat. Fly-by-wire membuat pesawat lebih ringan karena ia telah mengeliminasi sekian banyak sistem mekanikal hidrolik. Selain itu, pesawat juga memiliki kemampuan bermanuver lebih baik karena komputer dapat melakukan penyesuaian sikap pesawat ratusan kali lebih baik tiap detiknya dibanding manusia. Hal ini membuat penumpang pesawat dapat terbang dengan lebih lembut dan efisiensi bahan bakar yang lebih baik. Pada pesawat militer, fly-by-wire menjadikan pesawat lebih tahan terhadap kerusakan akibat pertempuran dibanding sistem kendali konvensional. Fly-by-wire juga membutuhkan perawatan yang lebih sedikit dibanding sistem kandali pendahulunya.

Sistem kendali fly-by-wire dibangun untuk meninterpretasikan keinginan pilot dalam pengendalian dan kemudian menterjemahkannya dalam aksi yang terjadi pada control surface pesawat, dimana proses pemindahan ini juga melibatkan faktor lingkungan. Pada sistem kendali konvensional, ketika pilot menarik control column maka flap elevator akan naik secara proporsional dengan sejauh mana pilot menarik control column. Sedangkan pada sistem kendali fly-by-wire, pergerakan flap elevator umumnya juga proporsional, tetapi komputer dapat melakukan penyesuaian jika dilingkungan terbang terjadi turbulen. Rasio antara control column di tangan pilot dengan gerakan flap di sayap bukan lah 1:1, ini bukan lagi hubungan langsung.

Digital fly-by-wire (DFBW) pertama kali diujicobakan pada pesawat F-8 Crusader dengan nomor ekor NASA 802. Pesawat ini diawaki oleh Gary Krier dari Edwards Air-Force Base, California. Hasil uji coba ini menvalidasi suatu konsep utama sistem kendali terbang elektronik yang saat ini digunakan hampir di semua pesawat terbang dengan performa tinggi, baik pesawat militer maupun pesawat transport sipil. Sistem kendali terbang DFBW saat ini juga digunakan pada pesawat antariksa NASA, space shuttle.

Digital fly-by-wire saat ini digunakan di berbagai jenis pesawat, mulai dari F/A-18 hingga Boeing 777 dan space shuttle. Pesawat N250 yang dulu pernah dibuat IPTN dan sempat terbang di Paris Air Show 1998 juga mengadopsi sistem kendali fly-by-wire. Saat itu, N250 adalah pesawat pertama dikelasnya yang memakai sistem kendali fly-by-wire.

Saat ini konsep sistem kendali berbasis elektronik seperti fly-by-wire mulai diaplikasikan juga pada mobil-mobil modern. Pada mobil modern, telah terpasang sebuah perangkat

Untuk membangun flight simulator dibutuhkan ilmu yg lengkap bukan hanya teknik penerbangan saja. Ahli teknik penerbangan misalnya yg menguasai bidang flight mechanic paling hanya menguasai persamaan gerak pesawat udara nonliniernya saja tapi akan kerepotan ketika harus membangun model aerodinamika yg benar – benar valid. Padahal model aero adalah nyawanya pesawat udara model. Jika salah dalam membuat model aero maka akan salah dalam membuat simulasi pesawat. Model aero menghasilkan keluaran antara lain: koefisien gaya angkat, gaya hambat, gaya ke samping, koefisien momen roll, yaw, dan pitch. Keenam koefisien tersebut merupakan fungsi kecepatan pesawat, ketinggian terbang, dan konfigurasi pesawat misalnya landing gear up atau down, flapnya masuk atau keluar sekian derajat,

aileron, rudder, spoiler dan lain-lain. Ini orang aero yg lebih tahu. Kemudian untuk membuat simulator harus memiliki model propulsi yg benar – benar valid. Model propulsi keluarannya adalah thrust. Thrust yang dihasilkan merupakan fungsi jumlah bahan bakar yg masuk ke engine, ketinggian dan kecepatan terbang, dan kondisi di bandara, yaitu ketika cuaca panas dan dingin walau di bandara yg sama maka akan menghasilkan kinerja propulsi yg berbeda. Untuk membuat model propulsi yg tepat tidak setiap ahli penerbangan menguasainya. Kemudian juga harus mengembangkan model pesawat ketika bergerak di darat atau biasa dinamakan ground performance. Model ini tentunya gabungan antara persamaan pesawat udara dengan persamaan gerak wahana darat, sebab ketika pesawat bergerak menempel di atas tanah selain ada gaya aero juga ada gaya akibat interaksi antara pesawat dan tanah. Sehingga mungkin model suspensinya juga harus bener, juga perlu dibuat persamaan ketika slip atau ngepot, dls. Untuk ground performance ini saya kira lebih banyak ilmu di luar teknik

penerbangan.

Kemudian ketika menggabungkan antara gelondongan simulator dan motion system pada full flight simulator harus disadari bahwa yg menjadi acuan gerakan pesawat udara adalah titik berat (c.g.) pesawat udara. Sedangkan gelondongan simulator memiliki c.g. sendiri yg posisinya berbeda dgn posisi c.g. pesawat yg disimulasikan. Sehingga mungkin perlu ada matriks transformasi antara system acuan badan gelondongan simulator terhadap badan pesawat udara model. Gelondongan simulator, saya kira harus dibangun dengan meniru struktur pesawat terbang, yaitu ringan dan kuat supaya gerakanya lincah. Misalnya untuk menirukan gerakan stall dan recovery, maka gelondongan simulator harus siap untuk gerakan itu sehingga harus ringan dan kuat. Jika gelondongan simulator terlalu berat maka dibutuhkan kaki2 motion system yg sangat kuat sehingga biaya pembuatan simulator akan lebih mahal. Tapi struktur ringan ini mungkin juga membutuhkan material yg mahal, sehingga 2 hal yg bertolak belakang tsb perlu dikompromikan. Lalu, karena motion system memiliki keterbatasan gerakan maka perlu digunakan teknik washout sehingga indera manusia yg mengendarai simulator tetap tertipu meskipun gerakan sebenarnya dari simulator sangat terbatas sekali. Misalnya manuver pesawat tempur dapat berguling (rolling) sejauh 360 derajat, maka dengan teknik washout ini pengendara simulator tetap merasa menaiki pesawat tempur yg disimulasikan, sedangkan simulator biasanya tidak mampu berguling 360 derajat, simulator bukan hanya untuk latihan pilot, tapi juga berguna pada saat rancang bangun pesawat yaitu untuk mengevaluasi kualitas pengemudian dan pengendalian pesawat. Sehingga pada fase perancangan rinci (detail design) pada saat merancang sebuah pesawat terbang baru, mungkin perlu juga dilakukan uji simulator baik simulator beralaskan tanah (ground based) maupun simulator terbang (in-flight simulator) .